Inflation, a persistent rise in the price of goods and services, is a complex phenomenon with various contributing factors. This section explores the key drivers of inflation in India, categorized into demand-pull, supply-push, domestic, and external factors. Inflation in India is influenced by various factors that also facilitate comparative policy analysis. The Phillips curve is a significant framework for understanding the relationship between inflation, employment generation, and economic growth.

Demand-Pull Inflation:

Demand-side inflation occurs when aggregate demand exceeds aggregate supply, resulting in a situation where too much money chases too few goods. For instance, if a country can produce 5,500 units of a commodity but the demand is for 7,000 units, scarcity drives up prices. In India, this scenario often arises in agrarian contexts due to factors like droughts, floods, or inadequate storage methods, which reduce output while demand remains constant.

• Excess Demand: This occurs when aggregate demand in the economy surpasses aggregate supply. Imagine a scenario where the demand for a good is 7,000 units, but production capacity is only 5,500 units. This scarcity leads to price hikes.
• Demand-Side Management: The Phillips curve illustrates the relationship between inflation and unemployment. Lower unemployment can sometimes lead to higher inflation due to increased demand.

Supply-Push Inflation:

Supply-side inflation is another crucial determinant in India’s inflation dynamics. Agricultural scarcity or damage during transit can cause shortages that drive prices higher. Similarly, high labor costs increase production expenses, contributing to higher commodity prices. Energy cost fluctuations also impact production costs and, consequently, the final prices of goods. These supply-driven factors are addressed through fiscal tools aimed at regulation and moderation. Additionally, global price increases can influence inflation through their impact on the supply side of the economy.

• Supply Shortages: Factors like droughts, floods, or inadequate storage infrastructure in an agrarian economy like India can lead to lower agricultural output. This scarcity pushes prices upwards.
• Production Cost Increases: Rising costs of labor, energy, or raw materials can be passed on to consumers through higher prices on finished goods.

Domestic Factors:

India’s developing economy faces challenges with its less developed financial markets, creating a disconnect between interest rates and aggregate demand. This gap, known as the real money gap, is a significant determinant of inflation in India. Rapid money supply growth outpacing goods supply exacerbates inflation. Issues like hoarding, which significantly affect commodities like onions, also contribute to inflationary pressures. Similar dynamics apply to precious metals like gold and silver, where price hikes impact inflation.

• Limited Financial Markets: Developing economies like India often have less developed financial markets. This weakens the link between interest rates and aggregate demand, potentially leading to inflation.
• Real Money Gap: The gap between money supply growth and real output growth can contribute to inflation. This is because a faster increase in money supply without a corresponding increase in goods can lead to price hikes.
• Hoarding: Hoarding of essential commodities like onions can artificially create scarcity and drive up prices. Similar issues can arise with other commodities like gold and silver.

External Factors:

• Exchange Rate Fluctuations: The value of the rupee relative to other currencies can impact inflation. A weaker rupee can lead to higher import costs, pushing up domestic prices. Exchange rate dynamics play a crucial role in India’s inflationary pressures. Liberal economic policies influence domestic markets, with price increases in the United States affecting imported commodity costs in India. Thus, nominal exchange rates and import inflation metrics reflect the competitiveness and challenges faced by the Indian economy.
• Global Price Pressures: Rising prices of commodities in the international market can also contribute to inflation in India through imported goods.

Current Scenario in India:

• Sticky Inflation: Despite interest rate adjustments, India faces a challenge with persistently high inflation, often attributed to supply-side constraints.
• Impact on Manufacturing: High inflation can create an unfavorable environment for manufacturing growth in India.

Historical Data:

• Historically, from 1960 to 2023, India’s annual inflation rate averaged 7.37%, reaching peaks such as 28.60% in 1974 and lows like -7.63% in 1976. Sector-wise, as of 2012, inflation rates were 9.8% for Primary Articles (including 7.3% for Food, 9.6% for Non-Food Agriculturals, and 26.6% for Mining Products), 14.0% for Fuel and Power, and 7.3% for Manufactured Articles.

Inflation in India is influenced by a complex interplay of demand, supply, domestic, and external factors. Addressing these factors requires a multi-pronged approach involving fiscal and monetary policies, alongside measures to improve supply chains and infrastructure.